Articles - Neal Miller

The Guardian (UK) Obituaries about Neal Miller

Posted on July 16, 2009 by Arnon

Neal Miller

Derided by other psychologists 40 years ago, his pioneering work on biofeedback now routinely brings relief to a host of medical problems

Pearce Wright
Guardian

Thursday April 4, 2002

Neal Miller, the psychologist and neuroscientist, who has died aged 92, was one of the first research workers to demonstrate experimentally the power of mind over matter. His ideas were derided by many of his colleagues 40 years ago, when he suggested that people might learn to control their heart rate and bowel contractions just as they learned to walk or play tennis, through a system called biofeedback.

Today, biofeedback is used routinely in alternative medicine to alleviate problems such as headaches, chronically taut muscles resulting from accidents or sports injuries, asthma, high blood pressure, heart arrhythmias, disorders of the digestive system and epilepsy.

Many of Miller’s theories, now accepted as little more than common sense, were established in ground-breaking work begun in the 1930s and based on his conviction that the brain affected human behaviour; and he sought to map the physiological underpinnings of the most visceral of human drives, like fear, hunger and curiosity.

Neal Miller was born in Milwaukee. He got his BS at the University of Washington in 1931, an MS at Stanford a year later, and a PhD in psychology from Yale in 1935. He was a social science research fellow at the Institute of Psychoanalysis in Vienna for one year. His training was traditional, with an emphasis on Freud. But he soon turned his attention to measurable aspects of behaviour and to the physical workings of the brain, and he developed the conviction that a true understanding of behaviour would ultimately depend on understanding how the brain worked.

He returned to Yale and spent the next 30 years in research that established his reputation as one of the most accomplished behavioural neuroscientists of the 20th century, for his pioneering studies of motivation, learning and reward.

He was among the psychologists whose reputations were established in the second world war, when they were asked by the US government to develop better tests for selecting aircrew, and improved pilots’ and air gunners’ operational success rates.

But when Miller described a conditioning and reward experiment in which rats were taught to control everything from their heart rate to their brain waves his credibility plummeted in the eyes of his peers.

Until then it had been assumed that functions like heartbeat, blood pressure and intestinal contractions were under the control of the autonomic nervous system and therefore beyond an individual’s conscious control.

When Miller’s experiments showed that the animals learned that they would get a reward if they performed a change effected usually by the autonomic nervous system, he suggested that, since people were a lot smarter, they might be taught to do the same, provided they could monitor the process directly.

When he introduced the idea, the task of monitoring physiological processes, like heart rate and blood pressure, was complicated.

Nowadays, with modern electronics, scientists can give individuals portable devices to monitor how they are faring as they conduct their daily lives, and researchers have a variety of sophisticated brain-scanning devices to monitor the reactions of people when they are reading, processing visual and auditory stimuli and experiencing emotions.

As Miller explained in a lecture in 1995, the small number of other scientists who shared his interests 50 years earlier had no such tools, and they had to rely on laboratory animals, principally rats, using reward and punishment to study behaviour. Eventually, scientists learned to stimulate the animals’ brains with electricity and chemicals to produce sensations like hunger.

Miller and a young colleague, Leo DiCara, discovered that by using a means of electrical stimulation to the pleasure centre in the brain, laboratory rats could be trained to do extraordinary feats, like decreasing their heart rate at will, dilating the blood vessels of one ear more than the opposite ear, or controlling the rate of urine formed in their kidneys.

Miller was regarded as one of the world’s leading authorities on animal learning abilities. Over the years, his regular use of laboratory animals aroused criticism from animal rights groups. He was a forthright defender of the practice, once arguing that if people had no right to use animals in research, then they had no right to kill them for food or clothing. Yet he acknowledged that the issue was complex.

“There is sacredness of all life,” he said. “But where do we draw the line? That’s the problem. Cats kill birds and mice. Dogs exploit other animals by killing and eating them. Humans have to draw the line somewhere in animal rights, or we’re dead.”

His second wife, Jean, and a son and a daughter by his first wife survive him.

· Neal Elgar Miller, psychologist and neuroscientist, born August 3 1909; died March 23 2002

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The story behind Miller’s Vienna trip (In Neal’s own words)

Posted on July 11, 2009 by Arnon

Miller had an insight about the similarity between Freud’s conception of repression and Pavlov’s conception of inhibition, he resolved to extend Hull’s program to an examination of Freudian theory and practice in terms of the laws of learning.
He was awarded a postdoctoral fellowship to study in Vienna at Freud’s Psychoanalytic Institute where he underwent a didactic analysis with Heinz Hartmann. He long regretted he had turned down at least one analytic session with the great Freud himself because an hourly $20 fee seemed more than he could afford…
The following script is \millers own words about his interest in Psychoanalysis

Neal Miller Own Words About Psychonalysis

Neal Miller’s own words about his interest in Freudian theory

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The Birth of Biofeedback

Posted on July 7, 2009 by Arnon

Taken by permission from

Biofeedback, Mind-Body Medicine, and the Higher Limits of Human Nature

Donald Moss, Ph.D.

A chapter included in: D. Moss (Ed.). (1998). Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing. Reprinted with permission of Greenwood Publishing Group. This book is available from AAPB’s Bookstore or from Greenwood at http://info.greenwood,com/books/o313291/0313291586.html

The Birth of Biofeedback

A new interdisciplinary paradigm emerged throughout the late 1960’s, unifying developments from the diverse fields of psychology, neurophysiology, cybernetics, and medicine, culminating in a number of key publications in the final year of the decade: In 1969 Neal Miller published an article in Science on the “Learning of Visceral and Glandular Responses.” Elmer Green was senior author for two classic articles in the same year — “Self-Regulation of Internal States” (in Proceedings of the International Congress of Cybernetics), and “Feedback Technique for Deep Relaxation” (in Psychophysiology). Charles Tart also published his edited compendium Altered States of Consciousness (Tart, 1969), including several articles on feedback techniques or operant conditioning modifying neuro-physiological processes.

In the same year key publications in systems theory and cybernetics gave wider dissemination to new concepts of feedback within systems, which were to be so critical in understanding self-regulatory phenomena. Ludwig Van Bertalanffy contributed a chapter to General Systems Theory and Psychiatry (1969); and Herbert Simon published The Science of the Artificial (1969).

“Biofeedback” as a model and technique was ready to be born: A scientist applies sensitive electronic instruments to provide meaningful information about physiologic processes to an animal or human subject. In turn, the subject gains greater awareness and control over the physiology and self-regulates more effectively. Bio-feedback, the providing of information back to a subject about life processes, contributes a powerful new tool for self-mastery, research, and clinical intervention.

In October 1969 the Biofeedback Research Society was formed, held its first meeting in Santa Monica, at the Surfrider Inn, and the phenomenon of biofeedback officially received its name. We will return to this institutional history of biofeedback as a profession, after reviewing several of the research and clinical foundations of biofeedback.

The Origins of Biofeedback

The contributions of many earlier researchers and practitioners can be cited as forerunners of biofeedback: Edmund Jacobsen commenced research at Harvard in 1908, and throughout the 1920’s and 1930’s worked to develop progressive muscle relaxation as an effective behavioral technique for the alleviation of neurotic tensions and many functional medical disorders (Jacobsen, 1938). He used crude electromyographic equipment to monitor the levels of muscle tension in his patients during the course of treatment. The German Johann Schultz contributed autogenic training in the 1930’s, a discipline for creating a deep low-arousal condition, with a pervasive quieting effect on the autonomic nervous system (Schultz and Luthe, 1959). B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, Joseph Wolpe, and others extended the operant training principles of the animal laboratory into a refined science of behavior therapy and behavior modification through instrumental learning (Skinner, 1969; Bandura, 1969; Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966). The building blocks were in place for a science of self-regulation by the 1960’s.

The scientific emergence of biofeedback is a good example of synchronicity. A number of independent areas of scientific work converged and overlapped, until a community of researchers recognized their common ground. Kenneth Gaarder points out that biofeedback was not so much a discovery, as it was “an awareness which emerged from the Zeitgeist” (Gaarder, 1979). Many researchers of the 1950’s and 1960’s can be cited as independent founders of biofeedback. I will highlight here the early work on EEG, visceral learning, electromyography, and incontinence.

Operant Control of EEG and the Pursuit of Alpha States

In the late 1950’s, Joe Kamiya studied the phenomenon of internal perception or the awareness of private internal experiencing. Seredipitously, he discovered that a subject could learn through feedback to reliably discriminate between alpha and beta dominant cortical states, and then further demonstrated that a subject could learn to produce such alpha or beta brain states on demand (Kamiya, 1969, 1994; Gaarder & Montgomery, 1977, p. 4). Kamiya’s continuing work on voluntary production of alpha states coincided with the dawning counter-cultural interest in altered states of consciousness, and the emergence of a new interest in Eastern religions, the psychology of consciousness, and in transpersonal psychology (Moss & Keen, 1981; deSilva, 1981).

This was the era in which Timothy Leary was attracting media attention, by encouraging youth to use LSD to discover new levels of human consciousness. In August 1969 the renowned social psychologist, Dr. Richard Alpert, renamed as Ram Dass, gave a presentation to the annual meeting of the Association for Humanistic Psychology on “The Transformation of a Man from Scientist to Mystic.”

Alpha brain states are most closely associated with a creative, open awareness, or with a receptive, meditative state. Kamiya’s research gave birth to a new humanistic dream, of human beings learning to cultivate a spiritually awakened state, within a relatively short time frame, and through the guidance of electronic monitoring. Now human beings could explore higher states of consciousness without psychedelic drugs.

A host of EEG studies and optimistic clinical reports followed. In 1967 Les Fehmi undertook a series of experiments on producing brain synchrony in humans, in hopes of enhancing the clarity and scope of information processing. In another example of serendipity, Fehmi discovered that he dramatically increased his own alpha production, after he “gave up on the task,” out of frustration at being unable to increase alpha. Further study of voluntary enhancement of alpha brain states, including studies of relaxation and imagery, led Fehmi to highlight a broadened, diffuse state of awareness. Fehmi contends that this non-focused, non-goal oriented attentional state serves to release physiological tensions, soften interpersonal relating, and optimize physiological functioning and health. Out of this program of research Fehmi developed his Open Focus model, for training individuals in a learned, meditative attentional style (Fehmi & Fritz, 1980; Fehmi & Selzer, 1980; Fehmi, in press). On a more philosophical level, Fehmi characterizes the human being as Homo qui attendit quomodo attendit, or the species which can attend to and choose its own style of attention (in press).

The research on alpha brain wave production and meditative spiritual awareness found a ready audience in the popular press. A new industry emerged, offering “alpha training units,” primitive biofeedback instruments, to assist the meditatively oriented individual in enhancing alpha states.

The scientifically minded community became increasingly skeptical. Ancoli and Kamiya (1978) critiqued the methodological weaknesses and inconsistencies of many of the early studies on alpha feedback training. They found the quality and length of training inadequate in many studies, and criticized researchers for neglecting to monitor such critical variables as the social interactions between experimenter and subject, and instructional set (1978, pp. 179-180). In 1979 Basmajian declared that “Alpha feedback is still a mystery but it is not an acceptable treatment method” (1979, p. 1).

The basic principle that brain processes can be brought under voluntary control remains exciting, and the scientific evidence for this principle continues to mount four decades later. Further, the interest never entirely faded in pursuing meditative, alpha dominant states of mind conducive to some kind of spiritual integration. Today’s EEG feedback or neurofeedback movement, however, has also been encouraged by additional pragmatic applications of brain wave control.

Eugene Peniston’s impressive 1989 report on successful outcomes in treating alcoholics with a program based on enhancing alpha/theta range cortical activity sparked a flood of interest, that altered states of consciousness could, after all, have benefit for personal growth and recovery (Peniston & Kukolsi, 1989). Similarly, a series of methodologically cautious reports by Joel Lubar suggested that schoolchildren diagnosed with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder could enhance their attentional capacities through selective EEG training in theta suppression and enhancement of beta range cortical activity (Lubar, 1989, 1991; Lubar and Shouse, 1977).

The neurofeedback movement of the late 1980’s and 1990’s continues some of the evangelistic fervor and methodological carelessness of the 1960’s alpha movement. The advances in instrumentation and computer signal processing in three decades, however, make possible an impressive degree of precision in electro-encephalographic measurement and real time feedback.

Visceral Learning and the Dream of Controlling One’s Own Health

Neal Miller, Leo DeCara, and their colleagues carried out a series of dramatic animal experiments in the 1960’s, demonstrating the operant conditioning of a variety of internal autonomically regulated physiologic processes, including blood pressure, cardiac function, and intestinal activity (Miller & DeCara, 1967; Miller, 1969; Miller, 1978). Prior to their research physiologists generally assumed that organisms have control over bodily functions governed by the central nervous system (or “voluntary nervous system”). The internal physiological processes controlled by the autonomic (or “involuntary”) nervous system were regarded as operating beyond conscious awareness or control.

Miller and DeCara used animals paralyzed by curare so that the animals could not produce the desired visceral changes through voluntary activity mediated by the central nervous system. In this paralyzed state their animal subjects were still able to change their visceral functions. A group of thirsty dogs were trained to salivate more (or to salivate less) to obtain water. Curarized rats were even able to change their EEG.

Many of Neal Miller’s experiments on curarized animals have not been successfully replicated, yet his animal studies spurred further investigations extending the same operant model of visceral learning to human subjects (Miller & Dworkin, 1974). More importantly, Miller’s research inspired the hope that biofeedback can enable a human being to take a more active role in recovering and maintaining health. Further, it encouraged the dream that human beings can aspire to previously unimagined levels of personal control over bodily states, reaching unprecedented states of wellness and self-control.

John Basmajian and the Control of a Single Motor Unit

The skeletal muscles have long been known to be under the human being’s conscious control, through the central nervous system. Human locomotion is based on this conscious control. The individual carelessly pictures the destination, and begins to move. In that same moment his or her central nervous system fluidly organizes multiple components of muscular activity into a “kinetic melody,” which effectively carries the individual to the goal. Hundreds and even thousands of “motor units” (each motor unit comprised of many muscle fibers) are recruited into one such activity or movement. A variety of diseases, injuries, and pathological conditions undermine this muscular integration, and rehabilitation of muscle pain and functional motor deficits is challenging at best. In many cases injury destroys the sensory-motor pathway linking brain and muscle, while the muscle fibers themselves remain structurally intact, but without coordination. Even the healthy individual shows little precise awareness of, or control over, individual motor units in the muscles. There is no proprioceptive sensation to guide the acquisition of control of such microscopic areas of muscle function.

John V. Basmajian began a program of research in the 1950’s to test the outer limits of voluntary control over the skeletal muscles. Basmajian utilized surface electrodes over the muscle, and visual (oscilloscope) and auditory feedback to the subject (Basmajian, 1967). Ultimately he demonstrated that almost any subject could establish conscious control and training of a single motor unit within a muscle, within a brief time. On one occasion he monitored the muscle functions of a television interviewer. This interviewer insisted that he would learn the motor control, while simultaneously conducting the interview for television cameras. Basmajian discouraged this bravado, yet the interviewer persisted and mastered the motor control with feedback, while carrying out the half hour interview (Brown, 1980).

Basmajian’s research, and the thousands of investigations which have followed, have established the powerful role which surface electromyography can play in physical therapy, neuromuscular re-education, and pain treatment (Moss, Kasman, & Fogel, 1996). The applications range from relieving a tension headache to rehabilitating foot drop after a stroke. Further, Basmajian’s work provides convincing support for the basic biofeedback model. If an external device is able to provide the human subject with precise information about physiological processes, then the individual’s control over these bodily processes can be increased. Even those muscles (or other organ functions) that have been damaged by injury or disease process may be brought under some form of compensatory control, once electronic feedback is provided to the individual. The biofeedback instrument creates a functional substitute (an external feedback loop), replacing the body’s original internal feedback and self-regulatory process.

Arnold Kegel, O. H. Mowrer, and Incontinence

One less glamorous area of clinical biofeedback practice antedates the rest of the biofeedback movement by at least two decades. In 1947 California gynecologist Arnold Kegel invented the perineometer, to assist his gynecological patients in controlling urinary leakage. John Perry and Leslie Talcott (1988, 1989) point out that the perineometer meets all of the definitions of a biofeedback device, including the 10 point definition of biofeedback proposed by Mark Schwartz (Schwartz & Associates, 1987). The perineometer is an instrument inserted into the vagina, which measures muscle contraction and provides the patient with immediate feedback, to guide her enhanced control of urine. The use of this device enhances self-regulation, and avoids personal embarrassment, social stigma, and costly and often ineffective surgical procedures. Dr. Kegel also introduced the now widely used Kegel exercises, but it is noteworthy that the Kegel exercises are more effective when their use is accompanied by perineometric feedback. John Perry points out that the only book on biofeedback ever to reach the New York Times Bestseller List was The G Spot and Other Recent Discoveries about Human Sexuality (Ladad, Whipple, & Perry, 1981), which includes discussion of the Kegel exercises and the perineometer.

The field of incontinence treatment also produced another contender for the earliest biofeedback device. O. Hobart Mowrer, the respected psychological researcher, described the use of a bedwetting alarm in a 1938 article. The simple device detected wetting, sounded an alarm, and awakened the child and parents (Mowrer & Mowrer, 1938). This immediate feedback triggered awakening, reflex sphincter contraction, and detrusor muscle relaxation. Through a process of classical conditioning, the internal cues presented by the filling bladder take over to stimulate the same response sequence (Collins, 1973). Many children rapidly learn to self-monitor and self-regulate. The process becomes automatic for most children, to the extent that they sleep through the night without incident.

These early innovations in daytime and nighttime incontinence treatment have borne fruit with dramatic personal consequences for many individuals. The United States Agency for Health Care Policy and Research published practice guidelines for adult urinary incontinence in 1992, recommending biofeedback as the first choice of treatment (Whitehead, 1995). Research reports show a similar efficacy for biofeedback with fecal incontinence (Whitehead & Drossman, 1996). These procedures produce a tremendous boon in personal esteem, because the individual can once again to lead an active life without shame or fear. Further, incontinence is one of the most frequent reasons many older adults are placed prematurely in nursing home care, and effective treatment preserves the personal dignity of independent living.

The Rapid Application of Biofeedback Techniques

The work of the above pioneers in biofeedback was not alone. Reports of biofeedback applications to a variety of medical and emotional disorders proliferated rapidly in the 1960’s and 1970’s. I will cite just a few of these investigations: Barry Sterman (1986) demonstrated that EEG guided training of a specific sensori-motor rhythm over the sensori-motor cortex could suppress some epileptic seizures. Bernard Engel (1973) reported operant control of cardiac arrhythmias. Chandra Patel (1975) reported on the use of both yoga and biofeedback in hypertension. Elmer Green, Dale Walters, and Joseph Sargent reported on the use of self-regulation training for migraine headache (Sargent, Walters, & Green, 1972). Thomas Budzynski, Johann Stoyva, and Charles Adler (1970) reported on the effects of feedback induced muscle relaxation on tension headaches.

A Science of Self-Regulation

By 1975 the field of biofeedback had established a number of effective treatment protocols, for tension headache, migraine, lower back pain, temporo-mandibular disorders, hypertension, Raynaud’s syndrome, incontinence, and a number of other functional disorders. The basic instrumentation triad of the EMG, thermal feedback, and the GSR had emerged as the “workhorses” of the biofeedback clinic. The electromyograph (or EMG) measures the electrical potential of muscle fibers, and proved to be useful for general relaxation training, the treatment of headaches and muscular pain, and neuromuscular education. Thermal feedback measures skin temperature, especially finger temperature, and proved useful as an indirect measure of vaso-constriction or vaso-dilation and blood flow. Thermal feedback proved useful for migraine headache, Raynaud’s disease, hypertension, and general autonomic relaxation. The Galvanic Skin Response meter (GSR, also referred to as a Skin Conductance or Electrodermal Activity meter) measures electrical changes in the skin, associated with sympathetic nervous arousal. The GSR proved useful as an adjunct to psychotherapy and behavior therapy, measuring anxiety and cognitive/emotional threat reactions (Fuller, 1977). A variety of additional feedback modalities proved useful for special applications: the feedback EEG (electroencephalograph), measuring electrical activity on the cortex of the brain; the pneumograph, measuring respiration rate and pattern; the photo-plethysmograph, measuring heart rate and blood pulse volume; the perineometer, discussed above; and a variety of other devices (Schwartz and Associates, 1995).

This same time period of the 1960’s and 1970’s also saw the articulation of a number of concepts framing a new approach to health, wellness, and the actualization of higher human potential.

Mind-Body Medicine

Humanistic psychology dramatically emphasized the unity of body and mind. Fritz Perls introduced a number of body awareness exercises into Gestalt therapy, as did the Reichian and other body therapy schools. Biofeedback took this emphasis on a mind-body unity to a new level and created a mind-body medicine. The “psycho-physiological principle” was formulated in a variety of ways; Elmer Green and his associates expressed it as follows: “Every change in the physiological state is accompanied by an appropriate change in the mental-emotional state, conscious or unconscious, and conversely, every change in the mental-emotional state, conscious or unconscious, is accompanied by an appropriate change in the physiological state” (Green, Green, & Walters, 1970, p. 3). Body and mind are one, and the pursuit of health requires a holistic, biopsychosocial approach (Green & Shellenberger, 1991).

Ian Wickramasekera and colleagues have proposed that current applied psychophysiological methods can serve as a bridge between the traditional biomedical model and the biopsychosocial model in family medicine and primary care (Wickramasekera, Davies, & Davies, 1996). Over 75 % of patients visiting a primary care physician present with physical symptoms related to psychosocial and behavioral factors. Engel (1977) called for a biopsychosocial model for medicine almost two decades ago, but this challenge remains unfulfilled. Wickramasekera cites a variety of interrelated mind-body techniques — biofeedback, hypnosis, and cognitive behavior therapy — as effective tools for addressing a variety of stress related disorders and somatization disorders. Psychophysiological assessment and psychophysiological monitoring using sophisticated electronic biofeedback instruments can play a critical role in effective interventions with medical patients (Wickramasekera, Davies, & Davies, 1996, pp. 223-229).

Dysponesis

George Whatmore and Daniel B. Kohli (1974) used EMG feedback to teach patients to relax muscle groups and developed the concept of dysponesis, misplaced effort, as a common neurophysiological factor in many functional disorders. Many individuals facing stressful situations respond by dramatically increasing efforts in the same old directions, and drawing on the same old strategies and habits. The result is a misplaced waste of effort and energy. The concept of dysponesis takes this problem of “doing more of the same” to a neuro-physiological level. In the face of stress the individual engages in maladaptive muscular efforts, breathing patterns, and autonomic arousal, producing only illness and fatigue. The promise of biofeedback is to increase awareness of such dysponetic habits, and to provide an avenue to new more healthful behavioral and physiological habits.

The Stress Response and the Relaxation Response

Hans Selye’s (1956) groundbreaking research on stress demonstrated that the human response to stress is an adaptive biological response with impact on the entire organismic system. Cognitive attention to an approaching threat triggers an alarm and mobilization response preparing the body for emergency action. The stress response activates the limbic or emotional brain, and the hypothalamus, which then stimulate large portions of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. The result is a flood of stress hormones (including ACTH), elevated blood sugar, and hyper arousal of many internal organs and functions. The individual will notice elevated heart rate, tense musculature, rapid respiration, and a variety of intense emotional states. This adaptive response prepares the individual to flee or fight the threat. In ideal circumstances the threat passes and the individual can return to a more relaxed psycho-physiological state.

In modern human society, however, the individual is exposed to chronically stressful work and family environments, the individual perseverates in thinking about the problems, and neither mind nor body return to the original resting state. This is the basis for many functional medical and psychiatric disorders. The body and mind enter a state of fatigue, exhaustion, and loss of adaptability. Many of specific components in the stress response have a temporary adaptive effect, but a debilitating effect over time. Under stress, for example, the pituitary releases vasopressin, which contracts the walls of the arteries, raising blood pressure. Over time this vasoconstriction contributes to chronic and life threatening hypertension. The immune system also can become depleted and unable to protect one from disease.

More recent research has shown that the so-called stress response is really more complex than first recognized. The autonomic nervous system does not respond as one single unit; rather a variety of divergent patterns occur in different individuals, some for example, affecting the cardio-vascular system in various ways, others affecting the upper or lower gastrointestinal tract, and others the musculoskeletal system. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activation patterns play a role in the multiple forms of the human stress response (Gevirtz, 1996).

Herbert Benson (1975) established that just as there is a human stress response, with negative effects on the body, there is also a relaxation response with a healing or restorative impact on the human physiology and mind. Benson began by investigating transcendental meditation, and its effects on physiology. The effects were the exact opposite of the stress response: a decrease in sympathetic activation, a reduction in stress hormone levels, lowered heart rate and blood pressure, relaxed musculature, and emotional calm. Benson reviewed the literature on Eastern meditation, Christian mysticism, and relaxation practices, and found that most approaches shared a common formula with three elements: a quiet environment, cultivation of a passive mental attitude (“letting go”), and the use of a mental device to focus attention. Benson then developed a non-religious form of meditation based on these three elements, and discovered similar effects on quieting physiological arousal. Benson hypothesized that this “relaxation response” (as he calls the psycho-physiological state), appears to underlie the beneficial effects of many schools of Eastern and Western meditation, yoga, and relaxation skills training.

Benson’s research showed the clinical benefits of cultivating the relaxation response: in lowered blood pressure, reduced anxiety, smoke cessation, and reduced drug and alcohol dependence. The relaxation response provides a conceptual framework for one of the major contributions of biofeedback. Providing immediate physiological feedback enhances the acquisition of a relaxation response, with immediate benefits for a number of functional medical disorders.

The Institutional History of Biofeedback

Academic departments of neurophysiology, physiological psychology, and sleep research, and a few medical institutions such as the Veterans Administration and the Menninger Foundation supported much of the new research on feedback mechanisms controlling physiological processes. Kenneth Gaarder identifies two critical meetings that preceded the Santa Monica Conference and supported the networking that culminated in the Biofeedback Research Society. First, an annual Veteran’s Administration research meeting took place in Denver in 1968, and several feedback researchers were in attendance: Thomas Budzynski, Kenneth Gaarder, Thomas Mulholland, Barry Sterman, and Johann Stoyva. Then in April 1969 the American Association for Humanistic Psychology and the Menninger Foundation co-sponsored a Conference on Altered States of Consciousness in Council Grove, Kansas, bringing together researchers working on many aspects of consciousness in relation to health. The work reported at Council Grove reflected the mood of the 1960’s, including research on meditation, psychedelic drugs, mysticism and extra-sensory perception. Elmer Green was one of the prime movers for the conference, and Barbara Brown, Kenneth Gaarder, Joe Kamiya, Gardner Murphy, and Johann Stoyva were in attendance.

The Santa Monica Conference and the Biofeedback Research Society

In 1969 a triad of Kenneth Gaarder, Gardner Murphy, and Barbara Brown formed a core committee to organize a single unifying conference to focus the growing interest in the concept of feedback. Several colleagues encouraged and supported the concept of a larger conference and the establishment of a new scientific society. Barbara Brown did most of the logistical work for the conference, set up the scientific program and later was elected as the first President. The Conference ran from October 20-22, 1969, at the Surfrider Inn in Santa Monica.

The Conference program was organized into a series of research reports and panels on the following issues: “Conditioning and the Control of Autonomic Functions, Muscle Feedback, EEG Feedback, Feedback and States of Consciousness, Methodologies of Feedback, Feedback–Theory and the Future, Feedback Techniques in Experimental Animals, and Clinical Applications of Feedback Concepts.”

The word biofeedback was not listed anywhere in the program and one of the controversial issues of the program was the debate over what to call this new research/treatment technique as well as what to call the organization. The terms self-regulation, auto-regulation, and feedback were all proposed. Finally the technique of “biofeedback” was named and the Biofeedback Research Society was formed.

The presenters listed in the program include John Basmajian, Barbara Brown, Thomas Budzynski, Leo Di Cara, Les Fehmi, Elmer Green, Joe Kamiya, Thomas Mulholland, Gardner Murphy, Barry Sterman, Johann Stoyva, Charles Tart, and George Whatmore, among others. Joe Kamiya observes that the group that gathered in Santa Monica was fascinating in its diversity, ranging from “the hardest nosed operant conditioners to those in white robes.” The Eastern spiritual influences were strong, as was the humanistic emphasis on the unfolding of new levels of human potential. The pursuit of Alpha cortical states as a pathway to spiritual awareness especially drew the interests of transpersonal psychologists and meditators. Yet methodology and rigorous psychophysiological research received equal emphasis. Biofeedback seemed to be a meeting point where high technology and the higher levels of consciousness could meet.

After Santa Monica the broadly focused new Biofeedback Research Society continued to evolve, becoming the Biofeedback Society of America in 1976, and the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback in 1988. The development of a panoply of clinical techniques for a variety of health problems increased the clinical emphasis of the Society. A greater emphasis developed on research documenting clinical efficacy of biofeedback techniques with a variety of clinical problems.

Biofeedback and Applied Psychophysiology Today

Today the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, headquartered in Wheat Ridge, Colorado, supports a peer reviewed journal publishing scientific articles, and a newsmagazine, and fosters basic scientific work by recognizing outstanding research papers at the annual conference. A variety of sections and interest groups have developed within the Association for individuals pursuing special interests in: EEG feedback (“neurofeedback”), surface EMG applications, technology, education, nursing, pediatric applications, respiratory physiology, and applied psychophysiology in family medicine.

Diversity continues to characterize the organization, which remains multi-disciplinary and continues to combine the poetic and the empirical in its annual programs. The 1996 annual meeting in Albuquerque, New Mexico featured keynote speakers on: 1) the frontiers of brain imaging technology, 2) transpersonal medicine, 3) the psychophysiology and behavioral treatment of hypertension, 4) the development and control of childhood asthma, 5) recent advances in spinal cord rehabilitation, and 6) “Why do African Americans suffer illness and die at a higher rate than other Americans?”

As this list of speakers illustrates, both the scientific foundations and the clinical breadth of the biofeedback movement has grown steadily since 1969. The term biofeedback is frequently criticized as too narrow, since biofeedback practitioners also engage in a variety of other treatment interventions, drawing on psychophysiological principles, but without specific use of a biofeedback instrument. The concepts of applied psychophysiology, clinical psychophysiology, and behavioral health may more broadly capture the spirit of the field today.

The majority of biofeedback practitioners today are health care providers involved in a daily clinical practice; this includes physicians, psychologists, nurses, social workers, physical and occupational therapists, and several other disciplines. Clinical biofeedback today offers a diversity of clinical procedures and protocols, with applications to a wide range of disorders.

Today’s vigorous EEG biofeedback movement, or neurotherapy movement, provides examples of the diversity of today’s clinical biofeedback: Many substance abuse therapists apply Eugene Peniston’s treatment protocol for training recovering alcoholics to produce higher magnitudes of alpha and theta brain activity, while utilizing imagery techniques for self-transformation and rehabilitation (Peniston & Kulkoski, 1989). Other neurotherapist’s follow Joel Lubar’s or Michael Tansey’s protocols for training children with attention deficits to alter dominant brain rhythms and enhance academic attention (Lubar, 1991). Others apply Barry Sterman’s (1986) EEG protocols to suppress convulsive neural activity and control epilepsy. Additional EEG applications and treatment protocols emerge regularly for disorders ranging from multiple personality to closed head injury.

According to an AAPB publication (Shellenberger, Amar, Schneider, & Turner, 1994, pp. 2-3), the clinical efficacy of biofeedback has been demonstrated for the following disorders: anxiety disorders, attention deficit and hyperactivity, cerebral palsy, chronic pain, enuresis, epilepsy, essential hypertension, headache (migraine, mixed and tension types), incontinence (fecal and urinary), insomnia, irritable bowel syndrome, motion sickness, myofascial pain syndrome, neuromuscular disorders, rectal pain and rectal ulcer, Raynaud’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis pain, stroke, and TMJ disorders.

In a recent publication Schwartz and Associates categorized biofeedback applications according to the quality of outcome research supporting each application. Schwartz and Associates (1995, pp. 108-109) report that abundant empirical research has demonstrated biofeedback’s efficacy for the following disorders: tension-type headache, migraine headache, Raynaud’s disease, urinary and fecal incontinence, essential hypertension, nocturnal enuresis, and dyschezia. At least some research supports good outcomes with: insomnia, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, ADD and ADHD, functional nausea and vomiting, irritable bowel syndrome, motion sickness, asthma, bruxism and TMD, tinnitus, phantom limb pain, and secondary Raynaud’s symptoms. Additionally, there are case reports of positive outcomes for biofeedback with: writer’s cramp, esophogeal spasm, occupational cramps, blepharospasm, dysmennorhea, visual disorders, some dermatologic disorders, diabetes mellitus, fibromyalgia, and menopausal hot flashes,

Professional Standards

Today AAPB has a sister organization, the Biofeedback Certification Institute of America (BCIA), also headquartered in Wheat Ridge, Colorado, which serves to assure the standards of care in the clinical practice of biofeedback. BCIA has established a basic blueprint of knowledge and skills regarded as essential to the practice of clinical biofeedback. BCIA now grants certification in three areas — biofeedback, stress management, and eeg biofeedback — based on didactic educational pre-requisites, supervised personal training, supervised clinical practice, and a comprehensive exam.

Biofeedback Today and the Search for Human Potential

Several figures in the field have expressed a concern that biofeedback’s transformation into a health profession treating sick individuals has led the field astray from the original dream of a human being guided by technology into a higher realization of human potential (Kamiya, 1994; Kall, 1994; Peper, 1996). According to Rob Kall, the vision of biofeedback involves recreating wholeness, balance and health, rather than merely eliminating symptoms. At its best, biofeedback “… opens people’s vision, dissolves inner barriers, illuminates paths to greater potential, opportunity, capacity for happiness, and ability to share with and contribute to others” (1994, p. 30).

The excitement of enhancing personal control and self-direction is never entirely lost even in the most mundane clinical procedures. Clinicians frequently report that patient’s utilizing biofeedback instruments have repeated “Eureka” experiences: “You mean that when I change my thoughts, my heart slows down and my heart rate and breathing come into balance,” or “I can do it! I can warm my own hands with my own mind. And I don’t ever have to have headaches again.”

Nevertheless, the critics remain justified in their concerns. The original visionaries never intended biofeedback to be an entirely practical affair. Barbara Brown, a founder and first president of the Biofeedback Research Society, proclaimed that biofeedback could give to the human being a New Mind and a New Body (1975). Later she imaged this new mind as a Supermind, with expanded consciousness and unlimited potential (Brown, 1980). Kenneth Pelletier showed that the mind can slay human health, but with the guidance of biofeedback, autogenic training, and meditative practices this same human mind can become the basis for a new holistic and creative adaptation for the healthy individual (1977).

If we are to be faithful to this original vision of Barbara Brown, Kenneth Pelletier, Elmer Green, and so many others, it is essential that the approach, concepts, and techniques of biofeedback remain available for education, spiritual discovery, self-awareness, and personal growth, and never become entirely medical. The biofeedback research tradition remains a part of the humanistic quest for human freedom, self-regulation, and personal and spiritual renewal.

References to Chapter Ten

(The author is grateful to Joe Kamiya, Kenneth Gaarder, and Francine Butler for assistance in drafting the historical overview.)

Ancoli, , & Kamiya, J. (1978). Methodological issues in alpha biofeedback training. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 3 (2), 159-183.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. NY: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston.

Basmajian, J. V. (1967). Muscles alive: Their functions revealed by electromyography. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Basmajian, J. V. (1979). Biofeedback: Principles and practice for clinicians. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Benson, H. (1975). The relaxation response. NY: William Morrow.

Brown, B. (1974). New mind, new body. NY: Harper & Row.

Brown, B. (1977). Stress and the art of biofeedback. NY: Harper & Row.

Brown, B. (1980). Supermind: The ultimate energy. NY: Harper & Row.

Budzynski, T. H., Stoyva, J. M., & Adler, C. (1970). Feedback induced muscle relaxation: Applications to tension headache. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 1, 1-14.

Butler, F. (1993, June). Personal correspondence.

Collins, R. W. (1973). Importance of the bladder-cue buzzer contingency in the conditioning treatment for enuresis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 82 (2), 299-308.

DeSilva, P. (1981). Two paradigmatic strands in the Buddhist theory of consciousness. In R. S. Valle & R. von Eckartsberg (Eds.), The metaphors of consciousness (pp. 275-285). NY: Plenum.

Engel, B. T. (1973). Clinical applications of operant conditioning in the control of cardiac arrhythmias. Seminars in Psychiatry , 5 (4), 433-438.

Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine, Science, 196, 129-136.

Fehmi, L. G., & Fritz, G. (1980, Spring). Open focus: The attentional foundation of health and well being. Somatics, 24-30.

Fehmi, L. G., & Selzer, F. (1980). Attention and biofeedback training in psychotherapy and transpersonal growth. In S. Boorstein & K. Speeth (Eds.), Explorations in transpersonal psychotherapy (pp. 314-337). NY: Jason Aronson.

Fehmi, L. G. (in press). Attention to attention. In R. Kall (Ed.), Applied neurophysiology and brain biofeedback. Trevose, PA: FUTUREHEALTH, Inc.

Fuller, G. D. (1977). Biofeedback: Methods and procedures in clinical practice. San Francisco: Biofeedback Press.

Gaarder, K. R., & Montgomery, P. S. (1977). Clinical biofeedback: A procedural manual. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Gaarder, K. (1979). Unpublished manuscript on the founding of the Biofeedback Society of America.

Gevirtz, R. (Chair). (March, 1996). The stress response is not unidimensional. Symposium at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Green, E. (1969). Feedback technique for deep relaxation. Psychophysiology, 6 (3), 371-377.

Green, E., Green, A. M., & Walters, E. D. (1970). Self-regulation of internal states. In J. Rose (Ed.), Progress of cybernetics: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Cybernetics, London, September 1969 (pp. 1299-1318). London: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

Green, E., Green, A. M., & Walters, E. D. (1970). Voluntary control of internal states: Psychological and physiological. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2, 1-26.

Green, E., & Green, A. (1977). Beyond biofeedback. San Francisco: Delacorte Press.

Green, J., & Shellenberger, R. (1991). The dynamics of health and wellness: A biopsychosocial approach. Fort Worth: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston.

Jacobsen, E. (1938). Progressive relaxation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kall, R. (1994, Summer). Heart, spirit and human potential section proposed for AAPB. Biofeedback Newsmagazine, 22 (2), 30.

Kamiya, J. (1994, February). Personal correspondence.

Kamiya, J. (1969). Operant control of the EEG alpha rhythm. In C. Tart (Ed.), Altered states of consciousness. NY: Wiley.

Ladad, A.; Whipple, B.; & Perry, J. D. (1981). The G spot and other recent discoveries about human sexuality. NY: Holt, Rhinehart, & Winston.

Lazarus, R. S. (1990 a). Stress, coping, and illness. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), Personality and disease. (pp. 97-120). NY: Wiley.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. NY: Oxford University Press.

Lubar, J. F. (1989). Electroencephalographic biofeedback and neurological applications. In J. V. Basmajian (Ed.), Biofeedback: Principles and practice for clinicians (3rd ed.), pp. 67-90. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Lubar, J. F. (1991). Discourse on the development of EEG diagnostics and biofeedback treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Biofeedback and Self-regulation, 16, 201-225.

Lubar, J. F., & Shouse, M. N. (1977). Use of biofeedback in the treatment of seizure disorders and hyperactivity. In B. B. Lahey & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 203-265). NY: Plenum Press.

Miller, N. E. (1969). Learning of visceral and glandular responses. Science, 163, 434-445.

Miller, N. E. (1978). Biofeedback and visceral learning. Annual review of psychology, 29, 373-404.

Miller, N. E., & DiCara, L. (1967). Instrumental learning of heart rate changes in curarized rats: Shaping and specificity to discriminative stimulus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63, 12-19.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. (1974). Visceral learning: Recent difficulties with curarized rats and significant problems for human research. In P. A. Obrist; A. H. Black, J. Brener, & L. V. DiCara (Ed.), Cardiovascular psychophysiology (pp. 312-331). NY: Aldine.

Moss, D. (1994, March). Twenty-five years of biofeedback and applied psychophysiology. In D. Moss (Ed.), Twenty-fifth anniversary yearbook (pp. 3-6). Wheat Ridge, CO: Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.

Moss, D., & Keen, E. (1981). The nature of consciousness. In R. S. Valle & R. von Eckartsberg (Eds.), The metaphors of consciousness (pp. 107-120). NY: Plenum.

Moss, D., Kasman, G., & Fogel, E. (Eds.). (1996). Physical medicine and rehabilitation (Special Issue). Biofeedback Newsmagazine, 24 (3).

Mowrer, O. H., & Mowrer, W. M. (1938). Enuresis: A method for its study and treatment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 8, 436-459.

Patel, C. (1975). 12 month follow up of yoga and biofeedback in the management of hypertension. Lancet, 1, 62-65.

Pelletier, K. R. (1977). Mind as healer, mind as slayer. NY: Delta.

Peniston, E. G., & Kukolski, P. J. (1989). Alpha-theta brainwave training and beta-endorphin levels in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 13, 271-279.

Peper, E. (1994, November). The future of applied psychophysiology. Panel discussion at the Midwestern Regional Conference on Behavioral Medicine and Biofeeedback, Grand Rapids, MI.

Perry, J. D.; & Talcott, L. B. (1988, May). The bastardization of Dr. Kegel’s exercises. Presentation to the Northeast Gerontological Society, New Brunswick, New Jersey.

Perry, J. D., & Talcott, L. B. (1989, March).

Posted in Biofeedback | Tagged Biofeedback, History | 1 Comment

Psychoanalysis & Science Bibliography

Posted on July 7, 2009 by Arnon

Miller:

Miller, N. E. (1948). Theory and experiment relating psychoanalytic displacement to stimulus-response generalization. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 43, 155-178.

Miller, N. E. (1951). Comments on theoretical models. Illustrated by the development of a theory of conflict behavior. Journal of Personality, 20, 82-100.

Miller, N. E. (1957). A psychologist speaks. In H. D. Kruse (Ed.), Integrating the approaches to

mental disease (pp. 43-45). New York: Hoeber.

Miller, N. E. (1964). Some implications of modern behavior theory for personality change and psychotherapy. In D. Byrne & P. Worchel (Eds.), Personality change (pp. 149-175). New York: Wylie.

Miller, N. E. (1968). Experiments relevant to psychopathology. In F. C. Redlich, G. L. Klerman, R. K. McDonald, & J. F. O’Connor (Eds.), The university and community mental health (pp. 53-69). New Haven: Yale University Press.

Miller, N. E. (1968). Visceral learning and other additional facts potentially applicable to psychotherapy. In R. Porter (Ed.), The role of learning in psychotherapy (pp. 294-309).

Miller et.al.

Miller, N. E., Brown, J., Klebanoff, S., & Lipofsky, M. (1939). Indecision and conflict; psychological theory tested by experiments on rats. Yale Science Magazine, 13, 22-33.

Miller, N. E. (with Sears, R. R., Mowrer, O. H., Doob, L. W., & Dollard, J.) (1941). I. The frustration-aggression hypothesis. Psychological Review, 48, 337-342.

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Learning & Motivation Bibliograpghy

Posted on July 7, 2009 by Arnon

Miller:

Miller, N. E. (1941). An experimental investigation of acquired drives. Psychological Bulletin, 38, 534-535. [abstract of paper presented at the annual meeting of the APA]

Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict behavior. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and behavior disorders (pp. 431-465), New York: Ronald Press.

Staff, Psychological Research Project (Pilot) [Miller, N. E. (Ed.)]. (1946). Psychological research on pilot training in the AAF. American Psychologist, 1, 7-16.

Miller, N. E. (1948). Studies of fear as an acquirable drive: I. Fear as motivation and fear- reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 89-101.

Miller, N. E. (1949). Review: Theories of learning (E. R. Hilgard). Psychological Bulletin, 46, 529-532.

Miller, N. E. (1950). Social science and the art of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 14, 580-584.

Miller, N. E. (1950). Outline on training and habituation of rats for laboratory work. In R. W. Gerard (Ed.). Methods in medical research, (Vol. 3, pp. 216-218). Chicago: Yearbook Publishers.

Miller, N. E. (1951). Comments on multiple-process conceptions of learning. Psychological Review, 58, 375-381.

Miller, N. E. (1951). Learnable drives and rewards. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.). Handbook of experimental psychology (pp. 435-472). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Miller, N. E. (1953). The role of motivation in learning. In Symposium on psychology learning basic to military training problems (pp. 103-116). Committee on Human Resources, Research and Development Board, Department of Defense. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Miller, N. E. (1954). Drive, drive-reduction and reward. In Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Congress of Psychology (pp. 151-152), June 1954, Montreal. [Special issue of Acta Psychologica].

Miller, N. E. (1954). Fear. In R. H. Williams (Ed.). Human factors in military operations (pp. 269-281). Chevy Chase, MD: John Hopkins University Operations Research Office.

Miller, N. E. (1957). Experiments on motivation; studies combining psychological, physiological, and pharmacological techniques. Science, 126, 1271-

1278.

Miller, N. E. (1958). Central stimulation and other new approaches to motivation and reward. American Psychologist, 13, 100-108.

Miller, N. E. (1958). Principles of learning by televised instructions. In College teaching by television (pp. 28-42). Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education.

Miller, N. E. (1959). Liberalization of basic S-R concepts: Extensions to conflict behavior, motivation and social learning. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science, Study 1, Vol. 2 (pp. 196-292). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Miller, N. E. (1960). Learning resistance to pain and fear: Effects of overlearning, exposure and rewarded exposure in context. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 137-145.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Analytical studies of drive and reward. [Note: Address as President to the Sixty-Ninth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York City, September 3, 1961.] American Psychologist, 16, 739-754.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Some experiments on the mechanisms of motivation [in Russian]. Voprosy Psikhologii,4,June-July, 143-156.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Implications for theories of reinforcement. In D. E. Sheer (Ed.), Electrical stimulation of the brain (pp. 575-581). Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.

Miller, N. E. (1963). Comments on “Approach-avoidance conflict in the mother-surrogate situation.” Psychological Reports, 12, 773-774.

Miller, N. E. (1964). Physiological and cultural determinants of behavior. [Note: this article is the result of an assignment to represent behavioral sciences, from physiology through anthropology, in a lecture on the program celebrating the Centennial of the National Academy of Sciences.] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 51, 941-954.

Miller, N. E. (1964). Some psychophysiological studies of motivation and of the behavioural effects of illness. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 17, 1-20.

Miller, N. E. (1966). The nature of appetite. In S. M. Farber, N. L. Wilson, & R. H. L. Wilson (Eds.), Food and civilization (pp. 200-223). Springfield, Illinois: Charles Thomas.

Miller, N. E. (1968). Experiments relevant to learning theory and psychopathology [in Russian]. Journal of Higher Nervous Activity I. P. Pavlov, 18, 249-265.

Miller, N. E. (1969). Experiments relevant to learning theory and psychopathology. In Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Congress of

Psychology, Moscow, 1966, 146-168. IUSP: Moscow.

Miller, N. E. (1971). Extending the domain of learning. In M. E. Meyer & F. H. Hite (Eds.), The application of learning principles to classroom instruction (pp. 46-62). Bellingham, Washington: Western Washing State College.

Miller, N. E. (1973). General comments on problems of motivation relevant to smoking. In W. L. Dunn, Jr., (Ed.), Smoking behavior (pp. 209-214). Washington, D.C.: Scripta Technica.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Some clinical implications of visceral learning. In M. L. Kietzman, S. Sutton, & J. Zubin (Eds.), Experimental approaches to psychopathology (pp. 245-253). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, N. E. (1976). Learning, stress, and psychosomatic symptoms [Note: Memorial paper in honor of Jerzy Konorski]. Acta Neurobiologica Experimentalis, 36, 141-156.

Miller, N. E. (1976). The role of learning in physiological response to stress. In G. Serban (Ed.), Psychopathology of human adaptation (pp. 25-46). New York: Plenum Press.

Miller, N. E. (1977). Foreword. In J. Olds (Ed.), Drives and reinforcements: Behavioral studies of hypothalamic functions (pp. v-vi). New York: Raven Press.

Miller, N. E. (1979). Psychosomatic effects in learning. In E. Meyer, III, & J. V. Brady (Eds.), Research in the psychobiology of human behavior (pp. 33-58). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Miller, N. E. (1982). Motivation and psychological stress. In D. W. Pfaff (Ed.), The physiological mechanisms of motivation (pp. 409-432). New York: Springer Verlag.

Miller, N. E. (1987). Education for a lifetime of learning. In G. C. Stone, S. M. Weiss, J. D. Matarazzo, N. E. Miller, J. Rodin, C. D. Belar, M. J. Follick, & J. E. Singer (Eds.), Health psychology: A discipline and a profession (pp. 3-13). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Miller, N. E. (1994). A bridge across a chasm: Learning and physiological regulation. [Review of a book by Barry R. Dworkin, “Learning and Physiological Regulation.”] Contemporary Psychology, 39(11), 1027-1029.

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

Miller, N. E. (1935). The influence of past experience upon the transfer of subsequent training. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University. [as referenced in: Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict behavior. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and behavior disorders (pp. 431-465), New York: Ronald Press.]

Miller et. al.

Miller, N. E. & Brown, J. (1939). A note on a temporal gradient of reinforcement.

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25, 221-227.

Miller, N. E., & Bugelski, R. (1948). Minor studies of aggression: II. The influence of frustrations imposed by the in-group on attitudes expressed toward out-groups. Journal of Psychology, 25, 437-442.

Miller, N. E., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Miller, N. E., & Kraeling, D. (1952). Displacement: Greater generalization of approach than avoidance in a generalized approach-avoidance conflict. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 217-221.

Miller, N. E., & Murray, E. J. (1952). Displacement: Steeper gradient of generalization of avoidance than of approach with age of habit controlled. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 222-226.

Miller, N. E., & Murray, E. J. (1952). Displacement and conflict: Learnable drive as a basis for the steeper gradient of avoidance than of approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 227-231.

Miller, N. E., & Senf, G. (1966). Evidence for positive induction in instrumental discrimination learning. In A. A. Hairapetian (Ed.), The central and peripheral mechanism of nervous activity (pp. 315-322). Erevan: The Armenian Academy of Sciences.

Further Contributions:

Bower, G. H., Miller, N. E. (1960). Effects of amount of reward on strength of approach in an approach-avoidance conflict. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 53, 59-62.

Bugelski, R., & Miller, N. E. (1938). A spatial gradient in the strength of avoidance responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23, 494-505.

Delgado, J. M. R., Roberts, W. W., & Miller, N. E. (1954). Learning motivated by electrical stimulation of the brain. [Note: First reported in 1953 as part of Miller’s Presidential Address to Division 3 of the American Psychological Association.] American Journal of Physiology, 179, 587-593.

Dollard, J. & Miller, N. E. (1950). Personality and Psychotherapy: An analysis in terms of learning, thinking and culture. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and Aggression. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Egger, M. D., & Miller, N. E. (1962). Secondary reinforcement in rats as a function of information value and reliability of the stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 97-104.

Egger, M. D., & Miller, N. E. (1963). When is a reward reinforcing?: An experimental study of the information hypothesis. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 132-137.

Kaufman, E. L., & Miller, N. E. (1949). Effect of number of reinforcements on strength of approach in an approach-avoidance conflict. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 42, 65-74.

Lawrence, D. H., & Miller, N. E. (1947). A positive relationship between reinforcement and resistance to extinction produced by removing a source of confusion from a technique that had produced opposite results. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37, 494-509.

Linton, H. B., & Miller, N. E. (1951). The effect of partial reinforcement on behavior during satiation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 44, 142-148.

Mowrer, O. H., & Miller, N. E. (1942). A multi-purpose learning-demonstration apparatus. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 163-170.

Myers, A. K., & Miller, N. E. (1954). Failure to find a learned drive based on hunger; evidence for learning motivated by “exploration.” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47, 428-436.

Porter, L. W., & Miller, N. E. (1957). Training under two drives, alternately present, vs. training under a single drive. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 1-7.

Sears, R. R., Hovland, C. I., & Miller, N. E. (1940). Minor studies of aggression: I. Measurement of aggressive behavior. Journal of Psychology, 9, 275-295.

Senf, G., & Miller, N. W. (1967). Evidence for positive induction in discrimination learning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 64, 121-127.

Trapold, M. A., Miller, N. E., & Coons, E. E. (1960). All-or-none versus progressive approach in an approach-avoidance conflict. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 53, 293-296.

Posted in All site material, Learning & Motivation | Tagged Conditioning, Learning, Motivation | Leave a comment

Behavioral Medicine Bibliography

Posted on July 7, 2009 by Arnon

Miller:

Miller, N. E. (1955). Shortcomings of food consumption as a measure of hunger: Results from other behavioral techniques. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 63, 141-143.

Miller, N. E. (1956). Effects of drugs on motivation: The value of using a variety of measures. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 65, 318-333.

Miller, N. E. (1957). Objective techniques for studying motivational effects of drugs on animals. In S. Garattini & V. Ghetti (Eds.), Psychotropic drugs (pp. 83-103). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Miller, N. E. (1960). Motivational effects of brain stimulation drugs.

Federation Proceedings, 19, 846-854.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Contributions [of] Neal E. Miller to the Pavlovian Conference on Higher Nervous Activity: I. Integration of neurophysiological and behavioral research. II. Part III: Discussion of the paper: “Inhibition as a determinant of synaptic and behavioral patterns” by Amedeo S. Marrazzi. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 92, 830-839, 1028-1030.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Some recent studies of conflict behavior and drugs. American Psychologist, 16, 12-24.

Miller, N. E. (1961). Learning and performance motivated by direct stimulation of the brain. In D. E. Sheer (Ed.), Electrical stimulation of the brain (pp. 387-396). Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.

Miller, N. E. (1963). Animal experiments on emotionally-induced ulcers. Proceedings of the Third World Congress in Psychiatry, 3, 213-219, Montreal, Canada, June 4-10, 1961.

Miller, N. E. (1963). Some motivational effects of electrical and chemical stimulation of the brain. Electroencephalographical and Clinical Neurophysiology, Suppl. 24, 247-259.

Miller, N. E. (1964). The analysis of motivational effects illustrated by experiments

on amylobarbitone sodium. In H. Steinberg, A. V. S. de Rueck, & J. Knight (Eds.), Animal behaviour and drug action (pp. 1-18). London: J. & A. Churchill, Ltd.

Miller, N. E. (1965). Chemical coding of behavior in the brain.

Science, 148, 328-338.

Miller, N. E. (1966). Some animal experiments pertinent to the problem of

combining psychotherapy with drug therapy. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 7, 1-12.

Miller, N. E. (1968). The brain’s critical periods. Impact of Science on Society, 18, 157-167.

Miller, N. E. (1969). Learning of visceral and glandular responses. Science, 163, 434-445.

Miller, N. E. (1969). Psychosomatic effects of specific types of training. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 159, 1025-1040.

Miller, N. E. (1970). Educating our viscera. In Science Year, 1971, 180-193. Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational Corporation.

Miller, N. E. (1972). Learning of visceral and glandular responses [postscript]. In D. Singh & C. T. Morgan (Eds.), Current status of physiological psychology: Readings (pp.228-250, postscript begins on page 245). Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole.

Miller, N. E. (1973). Commentary [on Delgado, Roberts and Miller’s “Learning motivated by electrical stimulation of the brain”]. In E. S. Valenstein (Ed.), Brain stimulation and motivation: Research and commentary (pp. 53-68). Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Behavioral medicine as a new frontier: Opportunities and dangers. In S. M. Weiss (Ed.), Proceedings of the National Heart and Lung Institute Working Conference on Health Behavior, 1975 (pp. 1-11). Washington, D.C.: DHEW Publ. #NIH, 76-868.

Miller, N. E. (1977). Effect of learning on gastrointestinal functions.

Clinics in Gastroenterology, 6, 533-546.

Miller, N. E. (1979). Behavioral medicine: New opportunities but serious dangers. Behavioral Medicine Update, 1(2), 5-7.

Miller, N. E. (1980). A perspective on the effects of stress and coping on disease and health. In S. Levine & H. Ursin (Eds.), Coping and health (pp. 323-353). New York: Plenum Press.

Miller, N. E. (1980). Effects of learning on physical symptoms produced by psychological stress. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research, Vol. 1 (pp. 131-167). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Miller, N. E. (1980). Introduction: Brain-stimulation reward and theories of reinforcement. In A. Routtenberg (Ed.), Biology of reinforcement: Facets of brain stimulation reward (pp. 1-7). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, N. E. (1981). The role of learning in homeostasis [followed by a panel report in which Miller’s comments on the role of determinism in his thought]. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 16, 67-69; 73-76. [Note: this reference forms part of a more inclusive one (pp. 63-76) entitled “Man in his environment: Reflections by W. Horsley Gantt, Neal E. Miller, and Joseph Wolpe.”]

Miller, N. E. (1981). The role of learning in neuroses, visceral responses and therapy [in Chinese]. Shinli Kexue Tongxiun, 3, 43-50.

Miller, N. E. (1981). An overview of behavioral medicine: Opportunities and dangers. [Note: Based on his Presidential address given at the meeting of the Academy of Behavioral Medicine Research, Snowbird, Utah, June 1979] In S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, & B. H. Fox (Eds.), Perspectives on behavioral medicine (pp. 3-22). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, N. E. (1981). Effects of stress and coping on physical health [in Chinese]. Shinli Kexue Tongxiun, 3, 1-10.

Miller, N. E. (1981). Hypertension: Effects of learning and stress. In Hypertension: Biobehavioral and epidemiological aspects, 1981 (pp. 75-92). Joint USA-USSR Symposium, Bethesda, MD, May 18-19, 1981. NIH Publication No. 80-22015.

Miller, N. E. (1981). Learning in the homeostatic regulation of visceral processes. In G. Adam, I. Meszaros, & E. I. Banyai (Eds.), Advances in physiological science, Vol. 17, Brain and behavior (pp. 141-151). Budapest: Akademiai, Kiado.

Miller, N. E. (1982). Learning and regulation of visceral processes [in Russian]. Journal of

Higher Neurological Functions, 31, 728-739.

Miller, N. E. (1982). Some behavioral factors relevant to cancer. In S. M. Levy (Ed.), Biological mediators of behavior and diseases: Neoplasia (pp. 113-122). New York: Elsevier Biomedical.

Miller, N. E. (1983). Behavioral medicine: Symbiosis between laboratory and clinic. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 1-31.

Miller, N. E. (1983). Some main themes and highlights of the conference. In G. C. Stone (Ed.), Health Psychology, 2, 11-14: Suppl. to the Proceedings of the National Working Conference on Education and Training in Health Psychology, May 23-27.

Miller, N. E. (1983). Understanding the use of animals in behavioral research: Some critical issues. In J. A. Sechzer (Ed.), The role of animals in biomedical research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 406, 113-118.

Miller, N. E. (1984). Behavioral medicine. In R. J. Corsini (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology, Vol. 1, 126-130. New York: Wiley Interscience.

Miller, N. E. (1984). Learning: Some facts and needed research relevant to maintaining health. In J. D. Matarazzo, S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, N. E. Miller, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 199-208). New York: Wiley Interscience.

Miller, N. E. (1984). Synthesis and some future needs. In J. A. Herd, A. M. Gotto, P. G. Kaufman, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Cardiovascular instrumentation: Applicability on new technology to biobehavioral research (pp. 321-326). Washington, D.C.: NIH Publication No. 84-1654.

Miller, N. E. (1984). Value and ethics of research on animals. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 23(3), 1-10.

Miller, N. E. (1985). Effects of emotional stress on the immune system. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 20(April-June), 47-52.

Miller, N. E. (1985). The value of behavioral research on animals. American Psychologist, 40, 423-440.

Miller, N. E. (1985). Theoretical models relating animal experiment on fear to clinical phenomena. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 261-272). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Miller, N. E. (1986). The morality and humaneness of animal research on stress and pain. In D. D. Kelly (Ed.), Stress-induced analgesia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 467, 402-404.

Miller, N. E. (1987). Behavioral medicine. In G. Adelman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of neuroscience, (pp. 122-124). Boston, Massachusetts: Birkhauser.

Miller, N. E. (1987). General comments [contained within] Circulation,76, Supplement Conference on Behavioral Medicine and Cardiovascular Disease; Circulation Monograph Number 6, Part 2, 76, 221-222.

Miller, N. E. (1988). The Neesima Lectures, Medical Psychology: I. Experimental studies of fear (anxiety) and their clinical implications. II. Effects of psychological stress and coping on the health of the body. Japan: Doshisha University Press.

Miller, N. E. (1989). Placebo factors in treatment: Views of a psychologist. In M. Shepherd & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Non-specific aspects of treatment (pp.39-55). Toronto, Canada: Hans Huber Publishers [on behalf of World Health Organization].

Miller, N. E. (1989). Truth is victim of animal advocates’ zeal. New Haven Register [Connecticut], February 22, p. 11.

Miller, N. E. (1990). How the brain affects the health of the body. In K. D. Craig & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Health enhancement, disease prevention, and early intervention (pp. 3-26). New York: Springer.

Miller, N. E. (1991). Commentary on Ulrich: Need to check truthfulness of statements by opponents of animal research. Psychological Science, 2(6), 422-424. American Psychological Society.

Miller, N. E. (1992). Behavior to the brain to health. In F. Samson & G. Adelman (Eds.), The neurosciences: Paths of discovery, II, (pp. 283-305). Boston, Massachusetts: Birkhauser.

Miller, N. E. (1992). Introducing and teaching much-needed understanding of the scientific process. [Note: Address upon receiving on August 16, 1991 the Award from the American Psychological Association for “Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology”] American Psychologist, 47(7), 848-850.

Miller, N. E. (1992). Some trends from the history to the future of behavioral medicine. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 14(4), 307-309.

Miller, N. E. (1994). Letter to the Editor.

International Journal of Stress Management, 1(1), 129-130.

Miller, N. E. (1995). Perspective on behavioral medicine and the brain’s hierarchy of homeostatic controls. In T. Kikuchi, H. Sakuma, I. Saito, & K. Tsuboi (Eds.), Biobehavioral self-regulation: Eastern and Western perspectives (pp. 229-245). Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.

Miller et.al.

Miller, N. E., Bailey, C. J., & Stevenson, J. A. F. (1950). Decreased “hunger” but increased food intake resulting from hypothalamic lesions. Science, 112, 256-259.

Miller, N. E., & Banuazizi, A. (1968). Instrumental learning by curarized rats of a specific visceral response, intestinal or cardiac. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 65, 1-7.

Miller, N. E., & Barry, H., III. (1960). Motivational effects of drugs: Methods which illustrate some general problems in psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacologia, 1, 169-199.

Miller, N. E., & Brucker, B. S. (1979). A learned visceral response apparently independent of skeletal ones in patients paralyzed by spinal lesions. In N. Birbaumer & H. D. Kimmel (Eds.), Biofeedback and self-regulation (pp. 287-304). Hillside, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Miller, N. E., & Carmona, A. (1967). Modification of a visceral response, salivation in thirsty dogs, by instrumental training with water reward. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63, 1-6.

Miller, N. E., & Chien, C. -W. (1968). Drinking elicited by injecting eserine into preoptic area of rat brain. Communications in Behavioral Biology, Part A,1, 61-63.

Miller, N. E., Coons, E. E., Lewis, M., & Jensen, D. D. (1961). Electrode holders in chronic preparations. B. A simple technique for use with the rat. In D. E. Sheer (Ed.), Electrical stimulation of the brain (pp. 51-54). Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.

Miller, N. E., & DeBold, R. C. (1965). Classically conditioned tongue-licking and operant bar pressing recorded simultaneously in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 59, 109-111.

Miller, N. E., & DiCara, L. (1967). Instrumental learning of heart-rate changes in curarized rats: Shaping, and specificity to discriminative stimulus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63, 12-19.

Miller, N. E., & DiCara, L. V. (1968). Instrumental learning of urine formation by rats; changes in renal blood flow. American Journal of Physiology, 215, 677-683.

Miller, N. E., DiCara, L. V., Solomon, H., Weiss, J. M., & Dworkin, B. (1970). Learned modifications of autonomic functions: A review and some

new data. Circulation Research, Suppl 1, 26, 27, I-3 to I-11.

Miller, N. E., DiCara, L. V., & Wolf, G. (1968). Homeostasis and reward: T-maze learning induced by manipulating diuretic hormone. American Journal of Physiology, 215, 684-686.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. R. (1974). Visceral learning: Recent difficulties with curarized rats and significant problems for human research. In P. A. Obrist, A. H. Black, J. Brener, & L. V. DiCara (Eds.), Cardiovascular psychophysiology (pp. 312-331). Chicago: Aldine.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. R. (1980). Different ways in which learning is involved in homeostasis. In R. F. Thompson, L. H., Hicks, & V. B. Shyvrkov (Eds.), Neural mechanisms and learning (pp. 57-73). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. R. (1982). Potentialities of automation and of continuous recording and training in life. In R. S. Surwit, R. B. Williams, Jr., A. Steptoe, & R. Biersner (Eds.), Behavioral treatment of disease (pp. 245-258). NATO Conference Series, 3. New York: Plenum Press.

Miller, N. E., Gottesman, K. S., & Emergy, N. (1964). Dose response to carbachol and norepinephrine in rat hypothalamus. American Journal of

Physiology, 206, 1384-1388.

Miller, N. E., Hubert, G., & Hamilton, J. B. (1938). Mental and behavioral changes following male hormone treatment of adult castration, hypogonadism, and psychic impotence. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 38, 538-540.

Miller, N. E., Jensen, D. D., & Myers, A. K. (1961). Injury and excitation by electric current. B. A comparison of the Lilly waveform and the sixty-cycle sine wave. In D. E. Sheer (Ed.), Electrical stimulation of the brain (pp. 64-66). Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.

Miller, N. E., & Kessen, M. L. (1952). Reward effects of food via stomach fistula compared with those of food via mouth. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45, 555-564.

Miller, N. E., & Miles, W. R. (1935). Effect of caffeine on the running speed of hungry, satiated and frustrated rats. Journal of Comparative Psychology., 20, 397-412.

Miller, N. E., & Miles, W. R. (1936). Alcohol and removal of reward. An analytical study of rodent maze behavior. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 21, 179-204.

Miller, N. E., Sampliner, R. I., & Woodrow, P. (1957). Thirst-reducing effects of water by stomach fistula vs. water by mouth measured by both a consummatory and an instrumental response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 50, 1-5.

Miller, N. E., & Stevenson, S. S. (1936). Agitated behavior of rats during experimental extinction and a curve of spontaneous recover. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 21, 205-231.

Miller, N. E., & Weiss, J. M. (1969). Effects of the somatic or visceral responses to punishment. In B. A. Campbell & R. M. Church (Eds.), Punishment and aversive behavior (pp. 343-372). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Further Contributions:

Adair, E. R., Miller, N. E., & Booth, D. A. (1968). Effects of continuous intravenous infusion of nutritive substance on consummatory behavior in rats. Communications in Behavioral Biology, Part A, 2, 25-37.

Bailey, C. J., & Miller, N. E. (1952). The effect of sodium amytal on an approach-avoidance conflict in cats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45, 205-208.

Barry, H., III, Etheredge, E. E., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Counterconditioning and extinction of fear fail to transfer from amobarbital to nondrug state. Psychopharmacologia, 8, 150-156.

Barry, H., III, & Miller, N. E. (1962). Effects of drugs on approach-avoidance conflict tested repeatedly by means of a “telescope alley.” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 201-210.

Barry, H., III, & Miller, N. E. (1965). Comparison of drug effects on approach, avoidance, and escape motivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 59, 18-24.

Barry, H., III, Miller, N. E., & Tidd, G. E. (1962). Control stimulus change while testing effects of amobarbital on conflict. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 1071-1074.

Barry, H., III, Wagner, A. R., & Miller, N. E. (1962). Effects of alcohol and amobarbital on performance inhibited by experimental extinction. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 464-468.

Barry, H., III, Wagner, S. A., & Miller, N. E. (1963). Effects of several drugs on performance in an approach-avoidance conflict. Psychological Reports, 12, 215-221.

Berkun, M. M., Kessen, M. L., & Miller, N. E. (1952). Hunger-reducing effects of food by stomach fistula versus food by mouth measured by a consummatory response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45, 550-554.

Berntson, G. G., Potolicchio, S. R., Jr., & Miller, N. E. (1973). Evidence for higher functions of the cerebellum: Eating and grooming elicited by cerebellar stimulation in cats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 70, 2497-2499.

Birbaumer, N., Flor, H., Cevey, B., Dworkin, B., & Miller, N. E. (1994). Behavioral treatment of scoliosis and kyphosis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(6), 623-628.

Blizard, D. A., Cowings, P., & Miller, N. E. (1975). Visceral responses to opposite types of autogenic-training imagery. Biological Psychology, 3, 49-55.

Booth, D. A., Coons, E. E., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Blood glucose responses to electrical stimulation of the hypothalamic feeding area. Physiology and Behavior, 4, 991-1001.

Booth, D. A., Coons, E. E., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Lateral hypothalamus mediated effects of a food signal on blood glucose concentration. Physiology and Behavior, 4, 1003-1009.

Bower, G. B., & Miller, N. E. (1958). Rewarding and punishing effects from stimulating the same place in the rat’s brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 51, 669-674.

Bugelski, R., & Miller, N. E. (1938). A spatial gradient in the strength of avoidance responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23, 494-505.

Carmona, A., Miller, N., & Demierre, T. (1972). A technique for the continuous recording of gastric vascular tonicity. Physiology and Behavior, 8, 1165-1168.

Carmona, A., Miller, N. E., & Demierre, T. (1974). Instrumental learning of gastric vascular tonicity responses. Psychosomatic Medicine, 36, 156-163.

Coile, D. C., & Miller, N. E. (1984). How radical animal activists try to mislead humane people. American Psychologist, 38, 700-701.

Coons, E. E., Levak, M., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Lateral hypothalamus: Learning of food-seeking response motivated by electrical stimulation. Science, 150, 1320-1321.

Cowings, P. S., Stout, C., Toscano, W. B., Reynoso, S., DeRoshia, C., & Miller, N. E. (1996). The effects of promethazine on human performance, mood states, and motion sickness tolerance. NASA Technical Memorandum 110420, November, (pp. 1-22). Moffett Field, California: Ames Research Center.

Davis. J. D., Lulenski, G. C., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Comparative studies of barbiturate self-administration. International Journal of the Addictions, 3, 207-214.

Davis, J. D., & Miller, N. E. (1963). Fear and pain: Their effect on self-injection of amobarbitol sodium by rats. Science, 141, 1286-1287.DeBold, R. C., Miller, N. E., & Jensen, D. D. (1965). Effect of strength of drive determined by a new technique for appetitive classical conditioning of rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 59, 102-108.

Davis, J. D., & Miller, N. E. (1966). A technique for mixing the blood of unanesthetized rats. Journal of Applied Physiology, 21, 1873-1874.

Davis, J. D., & Miller, N. E. (1966). A versatile and reliable printing counter. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 545-546.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Instrumental learning of peripheral vasomotor responses by rat. Communications in Behavioral Biology, 1, 209-212.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Instrumental learning of systolic blood pressure responses by curarized rats: Dissociation of cardiac and vascular changes. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 489-494.

Dicara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Instrumental learning of vasomotor responses by rats: Learning to respond differentially in the two ears. Science, 159, 1485-1486.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Long term retention of instrumentally learned heart-rate changes in the curarized rat. Communications in Behavioral Biology, Part A, 2, 19-23.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Changes in heart rate instrumentally learned by curarized rats as avoidance responses. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 65, 8-12.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Heart-rate learning in the noncurarized state, transfer to the curarized state, and subsequent retraining in the noncurarized state. Physiology and Behavior, 4, 621-624.

DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Transfer of instrumentally learned heart-rate changes from curarized and noncurarized state: Implications for a mediational hypothesis. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 68, 159-162.

Dworkin, B. R., Filewich, R. J., daCosta, J., Eissenberg, E., & Miller, N. E. (1980). A chronic arterial catheter and low compliance system for recording blood pressure and heart rate from the rat. American Journal of Physiology, 239, H137-H141.

Dworkin, B. R., Filewich, R. J., Miller, N. E., Craigmyle, N., & Pickering, T. G. (1979). Baroreceptor activation reduces reactivity to noxious

stimulation: Implications for hypertension. Science, 205, 1299-1301.

Dworkin, B. R., & Miller, N. E. (1977). Visceral learning in the curarized rat. In G. E. Schwartz & J. Beatty (Eds.), Biofeedback: Theory and research (pp. 221-242). New York: Academic Press.

Dworkin, B. R., & Miller, N. E. (1986). Failure to replicate visceral learning in the acute curarized rat preparation. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 299-314.

Dworkin, B. R., Miller, N. E., & Brines, M. L. (1979). Visceral learning and homeostasis. In Proceedings of the 1979 Joint Automatic Control Conference (pp. 579-582). New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

Dworkin, B., Miller, N. E., Dworkin, S., Birbaumer, N., Brines, M. L., Jonas, S., Schwentker, E. P., & Graham, J. J. (1985). Behavioral method for the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 82, 2493-2497.

Feirstein, A. R., & Miller, N. E. (1963). Learning to resist pain and fear: Effects of electric shock before versus after reaching goal. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 797-800.

Fowler, H., & Miller, N. E. (1963). Facilitation and inhibition of runway performance by hind- and forepaw shock of various intensities. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 801-805.

Glazer, H. I., Weiss, J. M., Pohorecky, L. A., & Miller, N. E. (1975). Monoamines as mediators of avoidance-escape behavior. Psychosomatic Medicine, 37, 535-543.

Grossman, S. P., & Miller, N. E. (1961). Control for stimulus-change in the evaluation of alcohol and chlorpromazine as fear-reducing drugs. Psychopharmacologia, 2, 342-351.

Holmes, J. E., & Miller, N. E. (1963). Effects of bacterial endotoxin on water intake, food intake, and body temperature in the albino rat. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 118, 649-658.

Keller, S. E., Weiss, J. M., Schleifer, S. J., Miller, N. E., & Stein, M. (1981). Suppression of immunity by stress: Effect of a graded series of stressors on lymphocyte stimulation in the rat. Science, 213, 1397-1400.

Keller, S. E., Weiss, J. M., Schleifer, S. J., Miller, N. E., & Stein, M. (1983). Stress-induced suppression of immunity in adrenalectomized rats. Science, 221, 1301-1304.

Krantz, D. S., Glass, D. C., Contrada, R., & Miller, N. E. (1981). Behavior and health: Mechanisms and research issues. Social Science Research Council Items, 35, 1-6.

Krieckhaus, E. E., Miller, N. E., & Zimmerman, P. (1965). Reduction of freezing behavior and improvement of shock avoidance by d-amphetamine. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 60, 36-40.

Landis, B., Jovanovic, L., Landis, E., Peterson, C. M., Groshen, S., Johnson, K., & Miller, N. E. (1985). Effect of stress reduction on daily glucose range in previously stabilized insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 8, 624-626.

Leibowitz, S. F., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Unexpected adrenergic effect with chlorpromazine: Eating elicited by injection into rat hypothalamus. Science, 165, 609-611.

Lynch, W. C., Hama, H., Kohn, S., & Miller, N. E. (1976). Instrumental control of peripheral vasomotor responses in children. Psychophysiology, 13, 219-221.

Macphail, E. M., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Cholinergic brain stimulation in cats: Failure to obtain sleep. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 65, 499-503.

Matarazzo, J. D., Weiss, S. M., Herd, J.A., Miller, N. E. & Weiss, S. M. (Eds.). (1984). Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention. New York: Wiley Interscience.

Murray, E. J., Wells, H., Kohn, M., & Miller, N. E. (1953). Sodium sucaryl: A substance which tastes sweet to human subjects but is avoided by rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 46, 134-137.

Novin, D., & Miller, N. E. (1962). Failure to condition thirst induced by feeding dry food to hungry rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 373-374.

Paolino, R. M., Quartermain, D., & Miller, N. E. (1966). Different temporal gradients of retrograde amnesia produced by carbon dioxide anesthesia and electroconvulsive shock. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 62, 270-274.

Pappas, B. S., DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1970). Learning of blood pressure responses in the noncurarized rat: Transfer to the curarized state. Physiology and Behavior, 5, 1029-1032.

Pappas, B. S., DiCara, L. V., & Miller, N. E. (1972). Acute sympathectomy by 6-hydroxydopamine in the adult rat: Effects on cardiovascular conditioning and fear retention. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 79, 230-236.

Pickering, T. G., Brucker, B., Frankel, H. L., Mathias, C. J., Dworking, B. R., & Miller, N. E. (1977). Mechanisms of learned voluntary control of blood pressure in patients with generalized bodily paralysis. In J. Beatty & H. Legewie (Eds.), Biofeedback and behavior (pp. 225-234). New York: Plenum Press.

Pickering, T. G., & Miller, N. E. (1977). Learned voluntary control of heart rate and rhythm in two subjects with premature ventricular contractions. British Heart Journal, 39, 152-159.

Quartermain, D., Kissileff, H., Shapiro, R., & Miller, N. E. (1971). Suppression of food intake with intragastric loading: Relation to natural feeding cycle. Science, 173, 941-943.

Quartermain, D., & Miller, N. E. (1966). Sensory feedback in time response of drinking elicited by carbachol in preoptic area of rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 62, 350-353.

Quartermain, D., Miller, N. E., & Wolf, G. (1967). Role of experience in relationship between sodium deficiency and rate of bar pressing for salt. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63, 417-420.

Quartermain, D., Paolino, R. M., & Miller, N. E. (1965). A brief temporal gradient of retrograde amnesia independent of situational change. Science, 149, 1116-1118.

Slangen, J. L., & Miller, N. E. (1969). Pharmacological tests for the function of hypothalamic norepinephrine in eating behavior. Physiology and Behavior, 4, 543-552.

Steinbaum, E. A., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Obesity from eating elicited by daily stimulation of hypothalamus. American Journal of Physiology, 208, 1-5.

Stone, G. C., Weiss, S. M., Matarazzo, J. D., Miller, N. E., Rodin, J., Belar, C. D., Follick, M. J., & Singer, J. E. (Eds.) (1987). Health psychology in the twenty-first century. In Health psychology: A discipline and a profession (pp. 513-524). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Stricker, E. M., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Thirst measured by licking reinforced on interval schedules: Effects of prewatering and of bacterial endotoxin. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 59, 112-115.

Stricker, E. M., & Miller, N. E. (1968). Saline preference and body fluid analyses in rats after intrahypothalamic injections of carbachol. Physiology and Behavior, 3, 471-475.

Taub, E., Crago, J. E., Burgio, L. D., Groomes, T., Cook, E. W., II, DeLuca, S. C., & Miller, N. E. (1994). An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: Overcoming learned nonuse by shaping. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 61(2), 281-293.

Taub, E., Miller, N. E., Novack, T. A., Cook, E. W., III, Fleming, W. C., Nepomuceno, C. S., Connell, J. S., & Crago, J. E. (1993). Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 74, 347-354.

Tenen, S. S., & Miller, N. E. (1964). Strength of electrical stimulation of lateral hypothalamus, food deprivation, and tolerance for quinine in food. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 58, 55-62.

Vertes, R. P., & Miller, N. E. (1976). Brain stem neurons that fire selectively to a conditioned stimulus for shock. Brain Research, 103, 229-242.

Weiss, J. M., Glazer, H. L., Pohorecky, L. A., Brick, J., & Miller, N. E. (1975). Effects of chronic exposure to stressors on avoidance-escape behavior and on brain norepinephrine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 37, 522-534.

Winson, J., & Miller, N. E. (1970). Comparison of drinking elicited by eserine or DFP injected into preoptic area of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 73, 233-237.

Wolf, G., Dahl, L. K., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Voluntary sodium chloride intake of two strains of rats with opposite genetic susceptibility to experimental hypertension. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 120, 301-305.

Wolf, G., & Miller, N. E. (1964). Lateral hypothalamic lesions: Effects on drinking elicited by carbachol in preoptic area and posterior hypothalamus. Science, 143, 585-586.

Zimbardo, P. G., & Miller, N. E. (1958). Facilitation of exploration by hunger in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 51, 43-46.

Zipes, D. P., Levy, M. N., Cobb, L. A., Julius, S., Kaufman, P. G., Miller, N. E., & Verrier, R. L. (1987). Task force 2: Sudden cardiac death. Neural-cardiac interactions. Circulation, 76, (Suppl. I), 202-207.

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Biofeedback Bibliography

Posted on July 7, 2009 by Arnon

Miller:

Miller, N. E. (1967). Behavioral and physiological techniques: Rationale and experimental designs for combining their use. In C. F. Code & W. Heidel (Eds.), Handbook of physiology, Section 6: Alimentary canal, Vol. 1: Food and water intake (pp. 51-61). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Miller, N. E. (1967). Certain facts of learning relevant to the search for its physical basis. In G. C. Quarton, T. Melnechuk & F. O. Schmitt (Eds.), The neurosciences: A study program (pp. 643-652). New York: Rockefeller University Press.

Miller, N. E. (1967). Laws of learning relevant to its biological basis. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 111, 315-325.

Miller, N. E. (1972). Autonomic learning: Clinical and physiological implications. In M. Hammer, K. Sulsinger, & S. Sutton (Eds.), Psychopathology (pp. 127-145). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Miller, N. E. (1972). Interactions between learned and physical factors in mental illness. Seminars in Psychiatry, 4, 239-254.

Miller, N. E. (1973). Biofeedback: Evaluation of a new technique. (Invited editorial). New England Journal of Medicine, 290, 684-685.

Miller, N. E. (1973). How psychological factors can affect visceral functions. In N. J. Fina (Ed.), Philip Morris Science Symposium (pp. 74-90). New York: Philip Morris.

Miller, N. E. (1974). Applications of psychophysiological research. Rehabilitation Psychology, 21(4), 137-141.

Miller, N. E. (1974). Introduction: Current issues and key problems. In N. E. Miller, T. X. Barber, L. V DiCara, J. Kamiya, D. Shapiro, & J. Stoyva (Eds), Biofeedback and self-control, 1973 (pp. xi-xx). Chicago: Aldine.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Applications of learning and biofeedback to medicine and psychiatry. In Highlights of the 20^th annual conference, Veterans Administration studies in mental health and behavioral sciences, Chicago, Illinois, April 9-1, 1975 (pp. 5-16). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government printing Office.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Applications of learning and biofeedback to psychiatry and medicine. In A. M. Freddman, H. I. Kaplan, & B. J. Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry/II (pp. 349-365). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Clinical applications of biofeedback: Voluntary control of heart rate, rhythm, and blood pressure. In H. I. Russel (Ed.), New horizons in cardiovascular practice (pp. 239-249). Baltimore: University Park Press.

Miller, N. E. (1975). Control of bodily functions through biofeedback. In G. Lindzey, C. Hall, & R. F. Thompson (Eds.), Psychology (pp. 370-373). New York: Worth.

Miller, N. E. (1976). Fact and fancy about biofeedback and its clinical implications. MS. 1329 (pp. 1-29) in Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, Washington, D.C. American Psychological Association, 6(4), 92.

Miller, N. E. (1977). Clinical applications of visceral learning and biofeedback In Recent trends in neurophysiology (pp. 164-178, in Russian). Leningrad: Scientific Publications.

Miller, N. E. (1978). Biofeedback and visceral learning.

Annual Review of Psychology, 28, 373-404.

Miller, N. E. (1979). Foreword. In W. J. Ray, J. M. Raczynski, T. Rogers, & W. H. Kimball (Eds.), Evaluation of clinical biofeedback (pp. vii-ix). New York: Plenum Press.

Miller, N. E. (1979). General discussion and a review of recent results with paralyzed patients. In R. J. Gatchel & K. P. Price (Eds.), Clinical applications of biofeedback: Appraisal and status (pp. 215-225). New York: Pergamon Press.

Miller, N. E. (1980). Applications of learning and biofeedback to psychiatry and medicine. In H. I. Kaplan, A. M. Freedman, & B. J. Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive text of psychiatry/III (pp. 468-484). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.

Miller, N. E. (1980). Review of the “The pain of obesity” (1976) by A. J. Stunkard. In Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 5, 347-349.

Miller, N. E. (1981). Behavioral medicine, biofeedback, and homeostasis. New applications of learning. Psychiatric Annals, 11(2), 31-45.

Miller, N. E. (1982). General perspective: Need for evaluation and basic research. In E. Richter-Heinrich & N. E. Miller (Eds.), Biofeedback – Basic problems and clinical applications (pp. 13-18). Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlad der Wissenschaften.

Miller, N. E. (1982). Some directions for clinical and experimental research on biofeedback. In L. White & B. Tursky (Eds.), Clinical biofeedback: Efficacy and mechanisms (pp. 1-20). New York: Guilford.

Miller, N. E. (1985). Rx.: Biofeedback. Psychology Today, 19(2), 54-57.

Miller, N. E. (1985). Some professional and scientific problems and opportunities for biofeedback. . [Note: Presidential address presented at the meeting of the Biofeedback Society of America, April 14, 1985, New Orleans.] Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 10(1), 3-24

Miller, N. E. (1989). Biomedical foundations for biofeedback as a part of behavioral medicine. In J. V. Basmajian (Ed.), Biofeedback: Principles and practice for clinicians (3^rd ed.) (pp. 5-15). Baltimore, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins.

Miller, N. E. (1990). Biofeedback: Removing the body’s blindfolds, In Institute for the Advancement of Health, How your mind affects your health: An

overview by leaders in the field, 19-25. San Francisco, California: Institute for the Advancement of Health.

Miller, N. E. (1992). Some examples of psychophysiology and the unconscious. Biofeedback and self-regulation, 17(1), 3-16. New York: Plenum Publishing.

Miller et.al.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. R. (1977). Critical issues in therapeutic applications of biofeedback. In G. E. Schwartz & J. Beatty (Eds.), Biofeedback: Theory and research (pp. 129-161). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, N. E., & Dworkin, B. R. (1977). Effects of learning on visceral functions – biofeedback. New England Journal of Medicine, 296, 1274-1278.

Further Contributions:

Cowings, P. S., Toscano, W. B., & Miller, N. E. (1995). Visceral learning in the treatment of motion sickness. AAPB (Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback) White Paper. Wheat Ridge, Colorado.

Cowings, P. S., Toscano, W. B., Kamiya, J., Miller, N. E., & Sharp, J. C. (1988). Final report: Spacelab 3 flight experiment #AFT23: Autogenic-feedback training as a preventive method for space adaptation syndrome. NASA.

Cowings, P. S., Toscano, W. B., Miller, N. E., & Reynoso, S. (1994). Autogenic feedback training as a treatment for airsickness in high-performance military aircraft: Two case studies. In NASA Technical Memorandum 108810, March, (pp. 1-20). NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

Koslovskaya, I. B., Vertes, R. P., & Miller, N. E. (1973). Instrumental learning without proprioceptive feedback. Physiology and Behavior, 10, 101-107.

Mowrer, O. H., Ruch, T. C., & Miller, N. E. (1936). The corneo-retinal potential difference as the basis of the galvanometric method of recording eye movements. American Journal of Physiology, 114, 423-428.

Richter-Heinrich, E., & Miller, N. E. (Eds.). (1982). In Biofeedback – Basic Problems and Clinical Applications. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften.

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Posted on July 5, 2009 by Arnon

The Origins of Biofeedback

The contributions of many earlier researchers and practitioners can be cited as forerunners of biofeedback:

Edmund Jacobsen commenced research at Harvard in 1908, and throughout the 1920’s and 1930’s worked

to develop progressive muscle relaxation as an effective behavioral technique for the alleviation of neurotic

tensions and many functional medical disorders (Jacobsen, 1938). He used crude electromyographic

equipment to monitor the levels of muscle tension in his patients during the course of treatment. The German

Johann Schultz contributed autogenic training in the 1930’s, a discipline for creating a deep low-arousal

condition, with a pervasive quieting effect on the autonomic nervous system (Schultz and Luthe, 1959). B. F.

Skinner, Albert Bandura, Joseph Wolpe, and others extended the operant training principles of the animal

laboratory into a refined science of behavior therapy and behavior modification through instrumental learning

(Skinner, 1969; Bandura, 1969; Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966). The building blocks were in place for a science

of self-regulation by the 1960’s.

The scientific emergence of biofeedback is a good example of synchronicity. A number of independent areas

of scientific work converged and overlapped, until a community of researchers recognized their common

ground. Kenneth Gaarder points out that biofeedback was not so much a discovery, as it was “an awareness

which emerged from the Zeitgeist” (Gaarder, 1979). Many researchers of the 1950’s and 1960’s can be

cited as independent founders of biofeedback. I will highlight here the early work on EEG, visceral learning,

electromyography, and incontinence.

Operant Control of EEG and the Pursuit of Alpha States

In the late 1950’s, Joe Kamiya studied the phenomenon of internal perception or the awareness of private

internal experiencing. Seredipitously, he discovered that a subject could learn through feedback to reliably

discriminate between alpha and beta dominant cortical states, and then further demonstrated that a subject

could learn to produce such alpha or beta brain states on demand (Kamiya, 1969, 1994; Gaarder &

Montgomery, 1977, p. 4). Kamiya’s continuing work on voluntary production of alpha states coincided with

the dawning counter-cultural interest in altered states of consciousness, and the emergence of a new interest

in Eastern religions, the psychology of consciousness, and in transpersonal psychology (Moss & Keen,

1981; deSilva, 1981).

This was the era in which Timothy Leary was attracting media attention, by encouraging youth to use LSD to

discover new levels of human consciousness. In August 1969 the renowned social psychologist, Dr. Richard

Alpert, renamed as Ram Dass, gave a presentation to the annual meeting of the Association for Humanistic

Psychology on “The Transformation of a Man from Scientist to Mystic.”

Alpha brain states are most closely associated with a creative, open awareness, or with a receptive,

meditative state. Kamiya’s research gave birth to a new humanistic dream, of human beings learning to

cultivate a spiritually awakened state, within a relatively short time frame, and through the guidance of

electronic monitoring. Now human beings could explore higher states of consciousness without psychedelic

drugs.

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